Cell cycle progression is subject to arrest at G1 and G2 checkpoints in response to DNA damage, presumably to allow time for DNA repair prior to entry into S and M phase, respectively. The p53 tumor suppressor is required for one such G1 checkpoint and functions to upregulate expression of GADD 45 and the mitotic inhibitory protein p21. GADD 45 stimulates DNA excision repair in vitro and inhibits entry of cells into S phase, and it apparently acts in concert with GADD 153 in inducing growth arrest. A related DNA-damage inducible gene, GADD 34 synergizes with GADD 45 or GADD 153 in suppressing cell growth. PEG-3 (progression elevated gene-3) shares significant homology with GADD 34 and is inducible by DNA damage. An additional GADD related gene, PA26, is a possible target of p53. Three isoforms of PA26 have been identified as PA26-T1, PA26-T2 and PA26-T3.